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Against Transcendence
Deirdre McCloskey gave the inaugural James M. Buchanan Lecture last week, The Hobbes Problem: From Machiavelli to Buchanan. It was a good start to the series, eloquent, learned, and heartfelt. McCloskey argued that the Hobbesian programme of building the polis on prudence alone, a program to which the moderns, Rawls, Buchanan, Gauthier and others have contributed is barren. A good polis must be built upon all 7 virtues, both the pagan and transcendent, these being courage, justice, temperance, and prudence but also faith, hope and love (agape).
In the lecture, McCloskey elided the difficult problems of the transcendent virtues especially as they apply to politics (I expect a more complete analysis in the forthcoming book). Faith, hope, and love sound pleasant in theory but in practice there is little agreement on how these virtues are instantiated. It was love for their eternal souls that motivated the inquisitors to torture their victims. President Bush wants to save Iran...with nuclear bombs. Faith in the absurd is absurd. Thanks but no thanks.
Since we can't agree on the transcendent virtues injecting them into politics means intolerance and division. Personally, I'd be happy to see the transcendent virtues fade away but I know that's unrealistic. The next best thing, therefore, is to insist that the transcendent virtues be reserved for civil society and at all costs be kept out of politics. The pagan virtues alone provide room for agreement in a cosmpolitan society, a society of the hetereogeneous.
Of course, in all this I follow Voltaire:
Take a view of the Royal Exchange in London, a place more venerable than many courts of justice, where the representatives of all nations meet for the benefit of mankind. There the Jew, the Mahometan, and the Christian transact together, as though they all professed the same religion, and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts. There the Presbyterian confides in the Anabaptist, and the Churchman depends on the Quaker’s word. At the breaking up of this pacific and free assembly, some withdraw to the synagogue, and others to take a glass. This man goes and is baptized in a great tub, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost: that man has his son’s foreskin cut off, whilst a set of Hebrew words (quite unintelligible to him) are mumbled over his child. Others retire to their churches, and there wait for the inspiration of heaven with their hats on, and all are satisfied.
If one religion only were allowed in England, the Government would very possibly become arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut one another’s throats; but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace.
Posted by Alex Tabarrok on April 10, 2006 at 07:18 AM in Philosophy, Political Science, Religion | Permalink
Comments
There is much in this I disagree with. Keep in mind Voltaire's Enlightenment was built upon a foundation of largely Christian societies; it was neither pagan nor stemming from a truly diverse religious mix. Christian societies have, among other things, been much more willing to accept the idea of individual rights; I am not dissuaded by the two-way direction of causation here. I know all about Jefferson's views but nonetheless it is hard to imagine the Founding Fathers as coming out of anything but a Christian society. In my view people will believe in the transcendent no matter what. An attempt to erect society without transcendence leads to the worship of the state. The U.S. has a formal separation of church and state but of course it is the most suffused with Christian ideas, including in the sphere of government. And I've been to pagan countries, few are to be envied!
Posted by: Tyler Cowen at Apr 10, 2006 7:54:18 AM
Alex, you only give arguments against faith and love. What about hope? I can't imagine a politics without hope.
One can also argue that welfare economics, cost-benefit analysis, utilitarianism, and several branches of law are attempts to work out what love for your neighbor means in practice. Just because love motivates some bad behavior doesn't mean it is primarily harmful. Would you use the existence of rape as evidence that we would be better off without any sex?
As for faith, I for one am glad the Marines are out there on that wall to protect the rest of us. (Although I am much less pleased with the orders political leaders give the Marines.)
Posted by: DK at Apr 10, 2006 8:51:38 AM
It was love for their eternal souls that motivated the inquisitors to torture their victims.
Can you elaborate on and/or provide some support for this statement?
Posted by: Matthew Cromer at Apr 10, 2006 9:27:34 AM
Well, I've always expected that Voltaire was an ***. I'm REALLY not looking forward to reading him now...
I wonder if philosophers come to view themselves as above others because of a necessary separation between the observer and the observed or if egomanics are attracted to philosophy because they seek to justify what they know to be wrong?
Any law or regulation is a statement about what is good (and to be encouraged) or what is bad (and to be discouraged). What is justice? What is prudence? You might like to claim that these can be defined on a utilitarian basis, but why should I accept your claim? Indeed, you constantly assume and laud my seeking my own utility function. If I expand my universe of possible options to not merely operating within the rules, but to allow me to change them, why should I not change the rules so that you are compelled to endow me with all of your wealth? Is that unjust? What is unjust is to deny the wise (that would be me) their rightful share of the goods in the world (that would be whatever I want).
If that last sentence sounds absurd, look around. Most leaders function according to it, whether in small (certain congresscritters) or large (almost all ancient kings).
"Appeal to authority" may be a fallacy in logic, but it is a fallacy upon which every society must be built. Human passions are too strong, they wreck every intercourse, unless there is some sort of rail guiding them. Society can only be built upon a faith in something.
Posted by: Nathan Zook at Apr 10, 2006 9:54:39 AM
Quick response to Tyler. Without denying that they were largely Christian it's clear that the founders were the least Christian leaders America has ever had.
If you want to say that the enlightment was built upon Christian societies ok, but we should also acknowledge that this didn't happen before the enlightenment swept away all the surface buildings! Try telling the Church in France that they were the foundation of the enlightment! More accurately the enlightenment had a chance because Europe was sick of religious wars.
I give much more credit to the Greco-Roman heritage of democracy and respect for civil rights. What's good in the Christian heritage actually came from the Greeks.
Posted by: Alex Tabarrok at Apr 10, 2006 10:27:32 AM
Matthew on the inquisition this is just standard stuff. E.g. from Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition
"The Church deemed it according to the public good to remove these heretics from the public, or at least to correct them, as the Church held that the eternal good of one's soul depends on its adherence to the teachings of the Magisterium of the Church."
Posted by: Alex Tabarrok at Apr 10, 2006 10:41:49 AM
Thanks Alex. I'm certainly familiar with the savagery of the inquisition and its purported aims.
I guess I just don't put any particular credence on their stated justification. Does the fact that people lie a lot mean that "truth" has no intrinsic meaning? Does the fact that people attribute all manner of barbarity to "love" mean that love has no intrinsic meaning?
Re: Christian vs. Greek origin of liberal values -- I would have to agree with Tyler and disagree with you. My reading of the Greco-Roman era is of philosophers which granted rights to certain groups but always considered others of no intrinsic value. Whereas the teachings of Jesus are quite clear on the intrinsic worth of every human being. This does not of course in any way provide cover for the abysmal record of the established Church and many of the nominally "Christian" civilizations. I say this as a non-Christian with a certain distaste for fundamentalism, but I give a fair amount of the credit here to the Christian faith.
Posted by: Matthew Cromer at Apr 10, 2006 11:38:03 AM
Mathew, what I think you are failing to conceptualize is that perhaps truth on its own has no value. Assume that we can have no absolute understanding of metaphysics (see Ayer I think language, truth, and logic). If this is true, what value does truth have outside of interaction? Your comparison of truth and love I find very apt. However, I would claim that like truth love has no intrinsic value out of the situation. There is no one definition of love. You may value your love higher than you value other things, but it does not give it some intrinsic value away from your experience of love.
Posted by: Maxwell at Apr 10, 2006 12:03:39 PM
Do you happen to know the source of the following quote that was quasi-attributed to McCloskey: "that no one was ever convinced by raw data of the truth of a proposition that he or she did not already hold to be true." This didn't make much sense to me; see here:
http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~cook/movabletype/archives/2006/01/post_1.html
or
http://tinyurl.com/pbhbs
but I thought maybe there was more explanation in the original quote.
Posted by: Andrew Gelman at Apr 10, 2006 4:46:06 PM
I thought her lecture was actually meta-economics or rather meta political economy. The terms of discourse matter. Economics has had enormous success with its simplified model of human behaviour; where that model continues to be successful we should continue to follow it; but it breaks down. "[W]e should talk of politics as it is". She ad-libbed a gesture towards Vernon Smith's experimental program. There is more to human behaviour than simplified economic man.
This would not matter if the terms of discourse did not matter, but discourse affects behaviour. Affects judgements (the paper refers to Posner). And the reiterated application of the simplified model outside those areas where it has been successful coarsens public speech and hence public behaviour.
She did not offer a substitute model, however.
Posted by: jim at Apr 10, 2006 9:13:48 PM
Many thanks to Alex Tabarrok for his kind words about my Buchanan lecture on Friday last. (I'll be glad to supply it electronically, by the way, to anyone who wants it; my web site will be down until I get back to Chicago in August, alas.) Yes, I do as he imagined talk a good deal in the new book The Bourgeois Virtues: Ethics for an Age of Commerce(out in June; reserve your multiple copies now on amazon!! cheap, cheap, cheap!) about the political as against the civil-society side of faith, hope, and transcendent love. I agree, and say so in the book, that the 18th century was an experiment in trying to get the transcendent out of politics, for which we are all thankful. It is correct to say that 18th-century folk such as Voltaire, Hume, Smith, Kant were trying to strip away from the state such transcendence as the divine right of kings and the defense of the one true faith (one prince, one confession). We owe our freedoms to their successes, something that my literary friends complaining about the Enlightenment Project do not appear to grasp.
The trouble was (as I say in the book and will detail in a volume 3 called The Treason of Clerisy: How the Transcendent Returned to Europe and Almost Killed Capitalism after 1848 [or some such title!])that hope and faith and transcendent love [let's call it 'agape'] came back into political thinking with great force in the 19th century---faith in the form of nationalism (as Tyler put it, without some other transcendent the state becomes God) and hope in the form of socialism. Thus from the left 1914 and from the right 1917, and all our woe. The worry is that if we so to speak lose track of faith and hope and agape, they are left to do mischief.
Come to think of it, it's the same point I make about rhetoric. If we don't recognize that we use arguments from authority, metaphors, stories, and so forth we will not as is usually supposed (it is philosophy's official position since Plato) enter a pristine world of fact and logic only. No, we will use the human rhetorical devices--because that is how humans are and must be---but we won't know, or will cynically deny, that we are using them. (By the way, to Alex Gelman, I didn't write that no one is convinced by raw data who wasn't already convinced. That way of talking does, though, sound like a somewhat crude formulation of what I just said: humans become convinced by rhetorical devices, including raw data and intellectual traditions and their faith in, hope for, and love of, say, economics.)
I like the way "jim" expressed the concluding theme of my talk (which was indeed meta-): "the reiterated application of a [prudence-only; no-other-human-virtues-in-sight] model outside areas where it's been successful [let us say, covered interest arbitrage; the market for wheat] coarsens public speech and hence public behavior." "Coarsen" is just the right word. I worry in the June book and will worry more in Vol. 2 half written that the rise in the rhetorical prestige of prudence, 1600-1800 in places like Amsterdam, London, Philadelphia had at last a coarsening effect on ethical talk and behavior.
I do not offer yet, as Jim notes, many examples of what happens to an economics that acknowledges that people are human (in my terms, exhibit all seven of the virtues, or fail to do so because of this or that vice). This is partly because my project is not primarily about economics or aimed at economists: it is about the goodness and badness of a bourgeois ideology. Mainly goodness, the four volumes being a full-scale apology for capitalism, aimed at non-believers. Further, some other economists---Albert Hirschman, Bob Frank, Arjo Klamer, Bruno Frey, George Akerlof---have given a more "complicated" set a motivations (as Hirschman put it once) a tentative try (not to speak of the blessed Adam Smith, who wrote the book).
But David Levy suggests that I redo my old textbook The Applied Theory of Price with this in mind. Oy vey. It gives me a headache to think of such a difficult project!
Posted by: Deirdre McCloskey at Apr 11, 2006 5:01:13 AM
Regarding the religious/philosophical origins of democracy, there are some other candidates besides Christianity, even if the US was founded by more-or-less Deistically leaning Enlightenment Christians. First is that the historical origins of the longest lasting, actually existing parliamentary democracies are from the Scandinavian countries with roots that predate Christianity, although the actual oldest existing parliaments date back only to periods after the Vikings went Christian. The oldest is the Althing of Iceland. The model for the British parliament was based on the models in the Viking-conquered Danelaw in the pre-Norman Conquest period, with the original Viking invasions of Britain dating back to their pre-Christian existence.
Cultural ecologist types like Marvin Harris or arguably Karl August Wittfogel, especially the latter, would argue that the foundation here is material/ecological, with authoritarianism coming from the great agro-hydraulic societies of monsoon agriculture on great river systems that gave powerful states economic advantages about 5,000 years ago for their ability to build and control dams and irrigation systems. Scandinavia became the actual seedbed of democracy, in contrast to the more theoretical version postulated about in Greece, because of its scattered individual farmers who had to respect each other and cooperate locally in a world of harsh climate.
I would note that there are other religions that posit value to the individual, including both Judaism and Islam, and others that value tolerance, notably Hinduism. It may have been British influence that led to democracy becoming established in India, but its religious diversity with its Hindu base probably helped to sustain the survivability of the import.
Posted by: Barkley Rosser at Apr 11, 2006 5:34:01 PM
The leap to universality and relative tolerance in the ancient world was indeed an important one.
I believe the original credit must lie with the Stoics and Buddhists however, as the prime innovators. Christianity did an excellent job preserving this classical heritage.
Hinduism scores well on syncretic tolerance, but not so well on universalism... the, err, caste system and all that.
Further bits:
I'll look forward to your book, Prof. McCloskey.
I think the idea that societies can easily reach an internal understanding on the pagan virtues any more easily than the transcendant virtues is pretty far-fetched.
Is justice Rawlsian or Nozickian? How to balance deontological justice vs. consequentialist prudence? When we are prudent, what are we prudently maximizing? Utility? Power? Human Rights?
Finding an overlapping consensus on the pagan virtues is no easy task.
Posted by: Mike D at Apr 11, 2006 6:19:26 PM
A very long time ago, about 40 years I think, I read an article, perhaps in Newsweek, by a well-known economist. He asked what is it that economists economize? His answer was love. I liked that.
Posted by: Robert Schwartz at Apr 11, 2006 11:27:29 PM
After reading the excellent McCloskey paper I can't help feeling depressed about the shallowness of modern thought at least since Hobbes. The intellectual problems McCloskey points to were made by modern thinkers, and it was all so unnecessary. Seems to me the ancients understood the relationship between ethics and politics that McCloskey wants to draw us back to. At the beginning of the Politics Aristotle says "the power of speech is intended to set forth the expedient and inexpedient, and therefore likewise the just and the unjust. And it is a characteristic of man that he alone has any sense of good and evil, of just and unjust, and the like, and the association of living beings who have this sense makes a family and a state."
In the contest between Hobbes and Aristotle, there is no contest.
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